Category: science

A
recent
study
proposes
that
the
wheel,
one
of
the
most
transformative
inventions
in

human
history,
could
have
first
been
developed
by
copper
miners
in
the
Carpathian
Mountains
around
6,000
years
ago.
This
theory,
based
on
a
detailed
modelling
study,
suggests
that
the
unique
environment
of
these
mining
regions
may
have
played
a
crucial
role
in
shaping
early
wheel
designs.
Richard
Bulliet,
Professor
Emeritus
at
Columbia
University,
and
engineers
Kai
James
and
Lee
Alacoque,
explored
how
the
challenges
faced
by
miners
might
have
driven
key
advancements
in
wheel
technology.

Tracing
the
Wheel’s
Early
Beginnings

While
evidence
of
wheeled
vehicles
has
been
found
across
Europe,
Asia,
and
North
Africa
from
around
5000
to
3000
B.C.,
pinpointing
the
wheel’s
exact
origins
remains
a
mystery.
The
research
focused
on
the
Carpathian
region
between
4000
and
3500
B.C.,
when
copper
miners
faced
the
difficult
task
of
transporting
heavy
loads
through
narrow
mine
shafts.
The
team
suggests
that
these
practical
challenges
likely
influenced
the
development
of
basic
transport
mechanisms,
eventually
leading
to
the
wheel’s
creation.

The
Innovations
Behind
Early
Wheels

The
study

highlights
3
major
and
important
innovations
that
likely
emerged
as
people
experimented
with
moving
heavy
objects.
Primarily
they
think
that
miners
would
have
used
rollers
to
shift
large
loads.
The
first
evidence
was
the
creation
of
grooved
rollers,
which
allowed
materials
to
move
more
smoothly
without
slipping
off.
The
next
step
was
the
introduction
of
a
wheelset,
where
wheels
were
attached
to
a
fixed
axle,
allowing
carts
to
roll
over
rough
terrain.
Finally,
the
design
evolved
with
wheels
that
moved
independently
of
the
axle,
offering
better
control
and
manoeuvrability.

What’s
Next?

This
study
sheds
light
on
how
the
wheel
may
have
originated
in
Eastern
Europe
but
the
researchers
have
acknowledged
the
possibility
that
other
ancient
cultures
could
have
discovered
similar
solutions
independently.

Recent
research
has
led
to
a
new
understanding
of
our
galaxy’s
position
within
the
universe.
A
fresh
study
suggests
that
the
Milky
Way
may
reside
in
a
much
larger
“basin
of
attraction”
than
previously
assumed.
This
discovery
challenges
what
we
know
about
our

galactic
surroundings,
revealing
that
the
supercluster
which
houses
the

Milky
Way
could
be
up
to
10
times
bigger
than
current
estimates.
Basins
of
attraction
(BOAs)
are
gravitational
regions,
where
objects
are
drawn
towards
a
massive
centre.
These
BOAs
can
be
visualised
as
layers
within
layers.
For
instance,
our
Solar
System
is
part
of
the
Milky
Way,
which
belongs
to
a
group
of
galaxies
called
the
Local
Group,
which
itself
is
within
larger
structures
such
as
the
Virgo
Cluster
and
the
Laniākea
Supercluster.

The
Discovery
of
a
Larger
Structure

According
to
a
new

study
published
in
Nature
Astronomy,
the
Milky
Way
may
be
part
of
an
even
larger
structure
than
Laniākea,
potentially
connected
to
the
Shapley
Concentration.
The
Shapley
Concentration
is
a
massive
cluster
of
galaxies
that
has
long
been
known
but
wasn’t
previously
thought
to
affect
our
galaxy.
This
new
research
suggests
that
it
might
have
a
significant
gravitational
influence,
extending
far
beyond
what
we
have
mapped
so
far.

Challenging
Our
Understanding

Dr
Noam
Libeskind,
Cosmologist
at
the
Leibniz
Institute
for
Astrophysics
Potsdam,
notes
that
expanding
our
knowledge
of
the
universe
reveals
more
connected
and
larger
cosmic
structures
than
we
imagined.
The
research
team,
led
by
scientists
who
initially
discovered
Laniākea
in
2014,
estimates
there
is
around
a
60%
chance
that
the
Milky
Way
is
part
of
this
larger
BOA.
Dr
Ehsan
Kourkchi,

Astronomer
at
the
University
of
Hawai’i,
highlighted
the
challenges
of
cosmic
surveys,
stating
that
even
the
most
advanced
tools
might
not
be
enough
to
capture
the
full
picture
of
our
universe.

A
new

humanoid
robot
from
China
has
set
a
record
by
running
at
a
top
speed
of
just
over
8
miles
per
hour
(3.6
metres
per
second).
This
makes
it
the
fastest
bipedal
robot
to
date,
although
this
feat
was
only
achieved
with
the
help
of
a
pair
of
specially
added
trainers.
Known
as
STAR1,
the
robot
was
developed
by
Robot
Era,
a
Chinese
company
focused
on
advanced
robotics.
STAR1
stands
at
5
feet
7
inches
tall
(171
cm)
and
weighs
143
pounds
(65
kg).

The
test
in
the
Gobi
Desert

In
a
demonstration
video,

Robot
Era
put
two
STAR1
robots
to
the
test
in
the
Gobi
Desert,
located
in
northwestern
China.
One
of
the
robots
was
equipped
with
sneakers,
while
the
other
was
not,
to
measure
if
the
footwear
would
impact
performance.
Powered
by
high-torque
motors
and

AI
algorithms,
the
robot
with
shoes
was
able
to
navigate
challenging
terrains
such
as
grass,
gravel,
and
pavement.
It
maintained
a
consistent
top
speed
for
34
minutes.

Beating
previous
records

The
top
speed
of
8
mph
allowed
STAR1
to
break
the
record
set
earlier
by
Unitree’s
H1
robot,
which
reached
a
maximum
of
7.4
mph
(3.3
m/s)
in
March
2024.
Notably,
the
H1
robot
did
not
technically
run,
as
its
feet
never
left
the
ground
entirely
during
movement.

STAR1’s
powerful
AI
and
design

Robot
Era
boasts
that

STAR1
is
powered
by
AI
hardware
capable
of
275
trillion
operations
per
second
(TOPS),
which
is
significantly
more
than
what
you’d
find
in
most
high-end
laptops.
Additionally,
the
robot
has
12
degrees
of
freedom,
providing
a
wide
range
of
movement
through
its
numerous
joints.
The
STAR1
is
just
one
of
several
humanoid
robots
developed
recently,
with
other
notable
models
including
Tesla’s
Optimus
Gen-2,
the
Figure
01,
and
Boston
Dynamics’
latest
Atlas
robot.

An
innovative
project
aimed
at
cultivating
new
oyamel
fir
forests
in
central
Mexico
holds
promise
for
the
survival
of
monarch

butterflies,
which
rely
on
these
trees
for
their
winter
hibernation.
The
ongoing
threat
of
climate
change
has
raised
concerns
that
these
crucial
habitats
could
vanish
by
the
end
of
the
century.
Researchers
initiated
this
experiment
by
planting
hundreds
of
young
oyamel
fir
trees
(Abies
religiosa)
approximately
100
kilometres
away
from
their
native
forests,
and
recent
findings
indicate
that
a
significant
majority
of
these
saplings
are
thriving.

The
Need
for
Action

The
undertaking
is
viewed
as
a
necessary
step
in
preserving
ecosystems.
Karen
Oberhauser,
a
conservation
biologist
at
the
University
of
Wisconsin–Madison,
emphasises
the
urgency
of
facilitating
the
movement
of
tree
species
in
response
to
changing
climates.
Each
autumn,
monarch
butterflies
migrate
from
milkweed-rich
regions
in
southern
Canada
to
the
mountainous
oyamel
fir
forests
in
central
Mexico.
However,
the
combined
challenges
of
declining
monarch
populations
and
climate
change
predict
a
dire
future
for
these
habitats.

Relocating
Oyamel
Fir
Trees

Cuauhtémoc
Sáenz-Romero,
a
forest
geneticist
at
Universidad
Michoacana
de
San
Nicolás
de
Hidalgo,
advocates
for
relocating

oyamel
fir
to
higher
elevations,
where
they
can
endure
the
colder
temperatures
necessary
for
their
survival.
The
existing
trend
shows
that
as
temperatures
rise,
the
oyamel
fir
may
struggle
to
find
suitable
habitats
within
their
current
ranges.
The
project’s
focus
involves
moving
these
trees
to
taller
mountains,
as
they
cannot
relocate
independently.

Planting
and
Early
Results

The

research
team
collected
oyamel
fir
seeds
from
elevations
between
3,100
to
3,500
metres
within
the
Monarch
Butterfly
Biosphere
Reserve
in
Michoacán
state.
Collaborating
with
the
Indigenous
community
in
Calimaya,
they
planted
around
960
trees
across
various
elevations
on
the
Nevado
de
Toluca
volcano.
Early
results
from
the
experiment
show
that
while
seedlings
planted
at
higher
altitudes
are
smaller,
a
commendable
survival
rate
of
around
80
per
cent
after
three
years
was
observed.

Looking
Ahead

Looking
ahead,
Sáenz-Romero
acknowledges
the
challenges
of
garnering
community
and
governmental
support
for
such
initiatives.
A
critical
question
remains:
will
the
migrating
monarch
butterflies
locate
these
newly
established
habitats?
The
winter
of
2023–2024
saw
some
monarchs
bypassing
the
traditional
biosphere
reserve
in
search
of
cooler
environments,
indicating
their
adaptability
in
the
face
of
climate
change.

Injecting
diamond
dust
into
the

atmosphere
could
potentially
cool
the

planet
by
1.6ºC,
according
to
a
recent
study
published
in
Geophysical
Research
Letters.
Led
by
Sandro
Vattioni,
a
climate
scientist
at
ETH
Zürich,
the
research
explores
whether
diamonds,
as
opposed
to
commonly
used
materials
like
sulfur,
could
offer
a
safer
and
more
effective
method
for
stratospheric
aerosol
injection.
This
method
is
aimed
at
reflecting
sunlight
back
into
space
to
mitigate
global
warming.

Diamonds
Versus
Sulfur
for
Cooling

While
sulfur
has
been
studied
as
a
cooling
agent—largely
inspired
by
volcanic
eruptions
that
inject
sulfur
dioxide
into
the
atmosphere—the
material
poses
significant
risks,
including
ozone
depletion
and
acid
rain.
Diamonds,
on
the
other
hand,
are
chemically
inert
and
would
not
contribute
to
these
hazards.
Vattioni
and
his
team
ran
complex
climate
models
to
assess
the
impact
of
different
materials.
Diamonds
stood
out
for
their
reflective
properties
and
ability
to
remain
aloft
without
clumping
together.

The
Steep
Costs
of
Diamonds

Although
diamonds
could
offer
a
promising
solution,
their
cost
is
a
major
drawback.
With
synthetic
diamond
dust
estimated
to
cost
around
$500,000
per
ton,
scaling
up
production
to
inject
5
million
tons
annually
would
demand
an
enormous
financial
commitment.
According
to
Douglas
MacMartin,
an
engineer
at
Cornell
University,
the
cost
of
deploying
diamond
dust
from
2035
to
2100
could
reach
$175
trillion.
This
price
tag
far
exceeds
the
relatively
inexpensive
sulfur,
which
is
readily
available
and
much
easier
to
disperse.
MacMartin
suggests
that
sulfur
may
still
be
the
material
of
choice
due
to
its
lower
cost
and
ease
of
use.

Debate
Continues
on
Geoengineering

Geoengineering
research,
including
the

study
of
alternative
materials
like
diamonds,
remains
a
contentious
topic.
Critics
like
Daniel
Cziczo,
an
atmospheric
scientist
at
Purdue
University,
argue
that
the
risks
of
unintended
consequences
outweigh
the
potential
benefits.
However,
Shuchi
Talati,
executive
director
of
the
Alliance
for
Just
Deliberation
on

Solar
Geoengineering,
emphasises
that
research
is
essential
for
understanding
all
possible
options,
especially
for
nations
most
vulnerable
to
climate
change

The
Taurid

Meteoroid
Complex,
once
feared
for
possibly
hiding
large,
civilisation-destroying
asteroids,
has
been
found
to
be
less
threatening
than
originally
believed.
Quanzhi
Ye,
an

astronomer
at
the
University
of
Maryland,
and
his
team
conducted
an
extensive
survey
using
the
Zwicky
Transient
Facility
at
California’s
Palomar
Observatory.
Their
findings
suggest
the
risk
of
being
struck
by
a
large
asteroid
within
this
debris
stream
is
significantly
lower
than
previously
thought.
Ye
emphasised
this
is
promising
news
for
planetary
defence,
as
initial
concerns
were
higher.

What
is
the
Taurid
Meteoroid
Complex?

The
Taurid
Complex
is
a
vast
stream
of
dust,
rocks,
comets,
and

asteroids
left
behind
by
Comet
2P/Encke,
a
short-period
comet
that
completes
its
orbit
around
the
sun
every
3.3
years.
This
debris
field
is
responsible
for

meteor
showers,
particularly
the
Southern
Taurids
on
November
5
and
the
Northern
Taurids
on
November
12.
Although
most
particles
in
these
showers
are
small,
there
were
fears
that
larger,
undiscovered
objects
could
pose
a
serious
threat.

Reduced
Threat
of
Large
Asteroids

Ye’s
team,
however,
concluded
that
only
around
nine
to
14
kilometre-sized
objects
exist
within
the
Taurid
Complex.
These
findings
challenge
previous
concerns
that
the
stream
could
hide
objects
capable
of
causing
global
destruction.
The
origin
of
the
Taurid
Complex
remains
debated,
with

studies
indicating
a
possible
break-up
of
a
larger
comet
thousands
of
years
ago.

Conclusion:
Taurid
Complex
and
Planetary
Defence

Although
Ye’s
findings
are
reassuring,
he
urges
that
vigilance
is
still
necessary.
While
this
particular
debris
stream
may
not
harbour
major
threats,
the
risk
of
asteroid
impacts
remains
a
valid
concern
for
Earth.
Nonetheless,
for
now,
the
Taurid
Complex
doesn’t
seem
to
hold
any
hidden
dangers,
and
any
objects
present
are
on
well-tracked
orbits
that
do
not
currently
threaten
our
planet.